Empirical Sources

Olano, H. A., Kachan, D., Tannenbaum, S. L., Mehta, A., Annane, D., & Lee, D. J. (2015). Engagement in mindfulness practices by U.S. adults: sociodemographic barriers. Journal of alternative and complementary medicine, 21(2), 100–102. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2014.0269

13% of U.S. employees report engaging in mindfulness-enhancing activities. Men are half as likely as women, and lower engagement was found in non-Hispanic blacks and Hispanics. Vulnerable (minority) populations far less likely to engage in mindfulness related activities. 

Hafenbrack, A. C., & Vohs, K. D. (2018). Mindfulness meditation impairs task motivation but not performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 147, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2018.05.001

5 Experiments with 617 participants found that inducing a state of mindfulness reduced self-reported feelings of motivation but did not impact task performance. 

Hülsheger, U. R., Alberts, H. J. E. M., Feinholdt, A., & Lang, J. W. B. (2013). Benefits of mindfulness at work: The role of mindfulness in emotion regulation, emotional exhaustion, and job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(2), 310–325. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031313

2 studies: 219 subjects participated in a 5-day diary study while 64 participants were randomly assigned to a mindfulness intervention group or a control group. Study 1 showed that mindfulness training in the workplace was correlated with reduced emotional exhaustion and higher job satisfaction. Study 2’s results supported this relationship. 

Wolever, R. Q., Bobinet, K. J., McCabe, K., Mackenzie, E. R., Fekete, E., Kusnick, C. A., & Baime, M. (2012). Effective and viable mind-body stress reduction in the workplace: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 17(2), 246–258. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027278 

239 volunteers. Evaluating two mind-body workplace stress-reduction programs (one yoga-based, one mindfulness-based), 2 mindfulness programs (in-person & online). Mindfulness programs had positive effects on perceived stress, sleep quality, and heart rate. 

Hülsheger, U.R., Feinholdt, A. and Nübold, A. (2015), A low‐dose mindfulness intervention and recovery from work: Effects on psychological detachment, sleep quality, and sleep duration. J Occup Organ Psychol, 88: 464-489. doi:10.1111/joop.12115

140 participants were randomly assigned to a self-training mindfulness intervention group, and a waitlist control group. Both groups took part in a 10-day diary to study the effects of this low-dose and economic mindfulness intervention for daily work recovery. Results showed positive effects on sleep quality and sleep duration for the intervention group, but not psychological detachment from stressors.

Reb, J., Narayanan, J., & Chaturvedi, S. (2014). Leading mindfully: Two studies on the influence of supervisor trait mindfulness on employee well-being and performance. Mindfulness, 5(1), 36–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0144-z

Trait mindfulness in individuals in leadership roles is positively associated with employee well-being (measured by job and psychological need satisfaction) and employee performance (in-role performance and organization behaviors). 

Reb, J., Narayanan, J., & Ho, Z. W. (2015). Mindfulness at work: Antecedents and consequences of employee awareness and absent-mindedness. Mindfulness, 6(1), 111–122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-013-0236-4

231 participating employees responded to online surveys measuring awareness and absent-mindedness. These two aspects were found to be beneficially associated with employee well-being as measured by emotional exhaustion, job satisfaction, and psychological needs satisfaction, as well as job performance as measured by task performance, organization, and deviance (rule breaking). 

Ruedy, N. E., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2010). In the moment: The effect of mindfulness on ethical decision making. Journal of Business Ethics, 95(Suppl 1), 73–87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-0796-y

2 studies (232 participants) Using a series of questionnaires to measure mindfulness and awareness, self-reports about hypothetical unethical situations in the first study, and an anagram task that allowed for cheating and unethical behavior in the second study. Mindfulness was positively correlated with more moral and ethical behavior in the first study, and less cheating in the second study.

Liang, L. H., Brown, D. J., Ferris, D. L., Hanig, S., Lian, H., & Keeping, L. M. (2018). The dimensions and mechanisms of mindfulness in regulating aggressive behaviors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(3), 281–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000283

256 participants (50 Supervisors and 206 subordinates) over three studies found that trait mindfulness can lower supervisor hostility towards subordinates. Mindfulness acts as a moderator. When supervisor mindfulness is higher, it has more effect on hostility towards subordinates than when mindfulness is low.

Long, E. C., & Christian, M. S. (2015). Mindfulness buffers retaliatory responses to injustice: A regulatory approach. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(5), 1409–1422. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000019

383 participants in two separate experiments were asked to complete a difficult 6-page proofreading task. They were randomly assigned to two groups that either listened to a 12-minute mindfulness, or mind-wandering exercise, and then given either fair or unfair feedback on their performance.  Results suggested that mindfulness reduces retaliation to perceived injustice, which is measured by three retaliatory behaviors: ruminative thought, outward-focused anger, and retaliatory deviance.

Yu, L., & Zellmer-Bruhn, M. (2018). Introducing team mindfulness and considering its safeguard role against conflict transformation and social undermining. Academy of Management Journal, 61(1), 324–347. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2016.0094

Validates a team mindfulness instrument and suggests that team mindfulness reduces team conflict and reduces relationship between task conflict and relationship conflict.

Arch, J. J., & Craske, M. G. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness: Emotion regulation following a focused breathing induction. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(12). https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.brat.2005.12.007

60 Participants (Undergraduate and Graduate students) with no previous experience with mindfulness meditation were shown collections of slides that were associated with positive, neutral, and negative emotions after either a 15-minute focused breathing exercise, a 15-minute worrying exercise, or a 15-minute unfocused attention exercise (control).  The group that listened to the 15-minute breathing exercise experienced less emotional volatility, fewer negative responses, and more willingness to view negative slides.

Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822–848. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822

Study on the MAAS (Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale) developed by authors. It is the most reliable and commonly used instrument for measuring Dispositional (Trait) and state mindfulness.

C. Fox, S. Nijeboer, M. L. Dixon, J. L. Floman, M. Ellamil, S. P. Rumak, P. Sedlmeier, K. Christoff. (2014). Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners. Neuroscience and Behavioral Reviews, 43, 48-73. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24705269

  Conclusion: 

Found eight brain regions consistently altered (aka grey-matter volume increased) in meditators, including areas key to meta-awareness (anterior prefrontal cortex), exteroceptive and interoceptive body awareness (sensory cortices and insula), memory consolidation and reconsolidation (hippocampus), self and emotion regulation (anterior and mid cingulate; orbitofrontal cortex), and intra- and interhemispheric communication (superior longitudinal fasciculus; corpus callosum).  Further research using rigorous methods is required to definitively link meditation practice to altered brain morphology.

Participants: 123 Brain Morphology differences from 21 Neuroimaging studies examining ~300 meditation practitioners.

Hölzel, B. K., Carmody, J., Vangel, M., Congleton, C., Yerramsetti, S. M., Gard, T., & Lazar, S. W. (2011). Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density. Psychiatry research, 191(1), 36–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.08.006

Conclusion: Explores anatomical consequences of meditation of the brain using MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging). 16 participants underwent the 8-week long MBSR (Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction) Program and underwent MRI scanning before and after the program. Results were obtained from the comparison between the 16 participants and a 17 participants. Participants reported meditating for an average of 27 minutes per day… Compared to the control, those who took part in the MBSR program had increased their gray matter (compared to their own baseline) in four different regions:  the posterior cingulate (associated with mind-wandering and self-relevance), left hippocampus (important for learning and memory), temporoparietal junction (helps with perspective taking, empathy and compassion), and pons(aids in communication between brain stem and cortex as well as sleep). These participants also showed decreased amygdala gray matter; a brain region associated with fear and perceived stress. Participants: 33 healthy and normal participants who were new to the practice of meditation. 

Farb, N. A., Segal, Z. V., Mayberg, H., Bean, J., McKeon, D., Fatima, Z., & Anderson, A. K. (2007). Attending to the present: mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modes of self-reference. Social cognitive and affective neuroscience, 2(4), 313–322. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsm030

Conclusion: This study uses fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) to explore the theory that there are two temporally distinct forms of self-reference: A default, or “narrative” self-referencing that links experiences across time (called Narrative Focus, or NF) and a momentary, or “experiential”, self-referencing that is centered on the present (called Experiential Focus, or EF) Experiential Focus is another way of describing state mindfulness. The purpose of this study is to characterize Narrative Focus and Experiential Focus, and to specifically examine how EF differs from NF in both the novice and Mindfulness trained groups. Half of the participants were trained in mindfulness through an 8-week MBSR program, and all participants were trained in engaging in both “Narrative Focus” (NF) and “Experiential Focus” (EF). Participants were scanned while reading intermixed positive (e.g. charming) and negative (e.g. greedy) trait descriptive words while engaging in either NF or EF. NF: In both the novice and MT groups, Narrative Self-focus is characterized by increased recruitment of midline prefrontal cortices, and a left lateralized linguistic-semantic network.

Novice EF: When participants shifted to an Experiential Self-focus, a relatively restricted reductions in the cortical midline network was observed in the Novice group. MT Trained EF: When group that attended the 8-week MBSR program shifted from Narrative Self-focus to Experiential Self-focus, there was a much more pronounced reduction in midline cortical activation, especially in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and amygdala and an increase in a right lateralized network, including the insula, and somatosensory cortex. Individuals in NF show more activity in these areas: The Prefrontal Cortex is related to higher cognitive functioning such as critical thinking, judgment, planning, and language. As such, overactivity in this region is associated with anxiety behaviors such as rumination and critical self-evaluation. The vmPFC is associated with impulse control, inhibition of emotion, decision making, and morality. The Amygdala is associated with memory, decision making, and emotional responses (such as fear, anxiety, and aggression). Mindfulness trained individuals in EF show more activity in these areas: The Right Hemisphere  is associated with non-verbal, spatial, creative and emotional processes. The Insula is associated with cognition related to self-awareness, consciousness, motor control, and interpersonal functions such as compassion and empathy. The Somatosensory Cortex is associated with body awareness.

Park, T., Reilly-Spong, M., & Gross, C. R. (2013). Mindfulness: a systematic review of instruments to measure an emergent patient-reported outcome (PRO). Quality of life research : an international journal of quality of life aspects of treatment, care and rehabilitation, 22(10), 2639–2659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-013-0395-8

Conclusion: Existing mindfulness scales are conceptually different, and none can be strongly recommended based solely on superior psychometric scales. All current scales including the MAAS and the FFMQ are severely limited due to a lack of construct validity (Whether or not the scales actually measure what they say they measure). However, The MAAS (Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale) was evaluated by the most studies (n=27) and had a positive overall quality, and the FFMQ (Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire) received the highest rating for internal consistency and construct validity… A review of 46 articles reporting 79 unique studies that met inclusion criteria out of a search of 2,588 articles. 10 instruments quantifying mindfulness as either a unidimensional or set of multiple subscales were reviewed. *The MAAS (Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale) is the most widely used scale to measure state and trait mindfulness as self reported by participants.

Brown, K. & Ryan, R. (2003). The Benefits of Being Present: Mindfulness and Its Role in Psychological Well-Being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822-848.file:///C:/Users/santi/Zotero/storage/AQ25JITX/Brown%20and%20Ryan%20-%202003%20-%20The%20benefits%20of%20being%20present%20Mindfulness%20and%20its.pdf

Conclusion: 

This article discusses 5 major studies that describe the development, validity, and reliability of the self-report scale, the MAAS (The Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale), which measures mindfulness as a state of increased awareness of internal states either as a temporary state or long-term dispositional trait. This study also explores the extend to which increased mindfulness predicts emotional self-regulation and well-being in comparison to other similar scales. 

Kiken, L. G., Garland, E. L., Bluth, K., Palsson, O. S., & Gaylord, S. A. (2015). From a state to a trait: Trajectories of state mindfulness in meditation during intervention predict changes in trait mindfulness. Personality and individual differences, 81, 41–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.044

Conclusion: Though changes in state mindfulness varied greatly among participants throughout the study, those who reported greater positive changes in state mindfulness also reported greater positive changes in trait mindfulness. Results show that increased state mindfulness over time is correlated with increased trait mindfulness and decreased psychological distress…

Participants completed pre- and post-intervention measures of trait mindfulness using the FFMQ, and psychological stress using them, and over an eight-week intervention period, reported their state mindfulness in meditation after a brief 10-minute mindfulness meditation using the Toronto Mindfulness Scale. 

Participants: 239 participants from a community-based mindfulness program based on MBSR (Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction).

Peterson, R. & Limbu, Y. (2009). The Convergence of Mirroring and Empathy: Communications Training in Business-to-Business Personal Selling Persuasion Efforts. Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing, 16, 1–48. 

file:///C:/Users/santi/Zotero/storage/QQIR83XY/Peterson%20and%20Limbu%20-%202009%20-%20The%20Convergence%20of%20Mirroring%20and%20Empathy%20Communic.pdf

Conclusion: Results showed that the groups with training in mirroring or empathy were more effective than the control (meaning they made more successful sales), and the group that was trained in both mirroring and empathy was more effective than any other…This study assesses the value of training in mirroring combined with training in empathy in a personal-selling setting. Students in 12 personal-selling classes acted as sales representatives to sell a service to small retailers. Each class was divided into 4 groups: Three experimental  group were trained in either mirroring, empathy, or both, while the control group received no training in either. Includes instructions on mirroring and empathy on the last two pages. Participants: 636 Students.

Benkí, José & Broome, Jessica & Conrad, Fred & Groves, Robert & Kreuter, Frauke. (2011). Effects of Speech Rate, Pitch, and Pausing on Survey Participation Decisions. 

Conclusion: Agreement was highest when interviewers spoke at a moderate pace (about 3.5 words/second) and paused at a moderate rate (about once every conversational turn). Successful pitch varied between men and women, though generally lower pitch was more successful among both. Male interviewers who had less varied pitch were more successful with increased pitch variability…

Examines the impact of three prosodic attributes of interviewers: speech rate, pitch, and pausing, on the outcome of specific telephone survey invitations. Participants heard a pre-recorded invitation to be interviewed without having any knowledge about the interview or the interviewer, other than the audio-recording. Participation: 1380.

Nikolaus, J., Roessing, T., & Petersen, T. (2011). The effects of verbal and nonverbal elements in persuasive communication: Findings from two multi-method experiments. Communications, 36. https://doi.org/10.1515/comm.2011.012 

Conclusion: Results showed that content had more impact than body language on preference, as Audio-only versions were rated more favorably in general. However vocal emphasis and gestures improved the perception of some features of the speaker, such as power, liveliness, and likability. One reason for this could have to do with the student’s sample being generally more intelligent than the general population, and therefore paying more attention to the factual content of a speech…Two Experiments studied the relationship between content, voice, and body language in persuasive communication. In the first study three different groups of participants watched three filmed speeches with varying degrees of gestures and vocal emphasis. In the second experiment three groups listened to audio tracks of the same speeches (Content only). Preference was measured using a questionnaire and RTR (Real-time Response Measurement)

Participants: 204.

Goyal, M., Singh, S., Sibinga EMS, et al. (2014). Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med., 174(3), 357–368. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018

Conclusion: Mindfulness meditation programs had moderate evidence of improved anxiety, depression, pain, stress, and other mental health related qualities when participants engaged in both 8 week and 3-6 week programs. MM programs had low evidence for no effect (meaning they do have an effect) on positive mood, attention, substance use, eating habits, sleep, and weight. MM programs showed no evidence of being better than any active and related treatment (i.e. drugs, exercise, other behavioral therapies)…This meta analysis attempts to gather randomized clinical trials with active controls for placebo effects from multiple databases in order to form a unified conclusion about the efficacy of Mindfulness Meditation training programs in treatment. Participants: 47 trials with 3515 participants out of 18,753 citations. 

Papies, E. K., Pronk, T. M., Keesman, M., & Barsalou, L. W. (2015). The Benefits of Simply Observing: Mindful Attention Modulates the Link between Motivation and Behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108(1). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25347126

Conclusion: Brief mindful attention training can help people control the impulses of both hunger and lust. Researchers from Utrecht University, Tilburg University and Emory University found that mindful attention can break the link in motivation and behavior—i.e., increasing mindful attention to a person’s thought processes can make them more resistant to cravings by reducing the effects of our body’s motivations toward reward cues (e.g. “attractive” food and people). Here, “mindful attention” is defined as “the insight that even the most compelling simulations, emotions, and thoughts occur only in one’s mind, inevitably arising and dissipating naturally.” 

Experiment 1: Mindful attention can reduce the effects of sexual motivation on sexual choices and cravings. Participants who had greater motivation for casual sex (based on self-reports of numbers of sexual partners, sexual desire, and sexual attitude) were more likely to desire more potential partners (while being shown a series of pictures of individuals) and to rate them as more attractive, compared to people who had lower levels of sexual motivation. However, mindful attention training buffered/reduced this effect. Participants who received a 12-minute mindful attention training (teaching participants how to observe their reactions to stimuli) before looking at the pictures and completing the tasks/ratings were not influenced by their individual levels of sexual motivation. In contrast, for participants who received a comparable 12-minute training that did not focus on mindful attention, but instead focused on having the participants immerse themselves in the pictures, their judgments and ratings of potential partners were significantly linked to their sexual motivation. 

Experiment 2: Mindful attention can reduce the effects of hunger on spontaneous food choices and cravings. Participants who received the 12-minute mindful attention training were less likely to want to eat unhealthy food choices and more likely to want to eat health food choices, regardless of how hungry they were. In contrast, participants who received a 12-minute training on relaxing while looking at pictures were much more likely to want to eat unhealthy foods (but not so much healthy foods) based on how hungry they were. Hunter predicted how much people craved food, but less so for people who received mindful attention training. 

Experiment 3: Mindful attention can reduce the effects of hunger in real-world settings. Participants who received mindful attention training before eating lunch in a cafeteria made healthier food choices (e.g. salads over snacks) and subsequently consumed less calories, regardless of how hungry they were. In contrast, participants who received relaxation or neutral training made less healthy choices and consumed more calories depending on how hungry they were. Participants: Experiment 1: 78 heterosexual participants. Experiment 2: 75 participants. Experiment 3: 114 participants. 

McManus, F., Surawy, C., Muse, K., Vazquez-Montes, M., & Williams, J. M. G. (2012). A randomized clinical trial of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy versus unrestricted services for health anxiety (hypochondriasis). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80(5), 817-828. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0028782

Conclusion: Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy is particularly effective at targeting the symptoms of specific disorders. Researchers from the University of Oxford found that Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) was particularly effective at treating symptoms in people with hypochondriasis. In contrast to Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, which focuses on changing the contents of a person’s thoughts, MBCT aims to reduce the impact of certain thought processes by “changing the individual’s relationship to their thoughts.” It “focuses on fostering meta-cognitive awareness and the modification of meta-cognitive processes that maintain unhelpful reactive or ruminative mind states.” Compared to participants who only stayed on their usual forms of treatment for 8 weeks, participants who were randomly assigned to take classes on MBCT (which also involved meditation and exercises) during the same period experienced less anxiety about their health and more likely to no longer have hypochondriasis both immediately after the intervention and during a 1-year followup.

Gallegos, A. M., Hoerger, M., Talbot, N. L., Krasner, M. S., Knight, J. M., Moynihan, J. A., & Duberstein, P. R. (2013). Toward identifying the effects of the specific components of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction on biologic and emotional outcomes among older adults. Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.), 19(10), 787–792. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2012.0028

Conclusion: MBSR can improve biological and emotional health in older adults. Researchers from the Rochester Center for Mind-Body Research, the Department of Psychiatry, and the Department of Medicine at the University of Rochester Medical Center in New York assessed the effectiveness of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) approaches on biological and emotional outcomes for older adults. Participants participated in an 8-week MBSR program and “maintained weekly practice logs documenting participation in yoga, sitting meditation, informal meditation, and body scan. The researchers measured antibody responses through blood samples and positive affect both before and after the study period and found that the “practice of MBSR activities, particularly yoga, could provide benefits for specific aspects of physiologic function and positive affect. Participants: 100 community-dwelling older adults (65+ years of age).

Fernros, L., Furhoff, A. & Wändell, P.E. Improving quality of life using compound mind-body therapies: evaluation of a course intervention with body movement and breath therapy, guided imagery, chakra experiencing and mindfulness meditation. Qual Life Res17, 367–376 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-008-9321-x

Conclusion: Mind-body interventions are effective at improving well-being, particularly emotional health. Researchers from the Center for Family and Community Medicine at the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden conducted a survey study at a training center in Sweden, which holds courses teaching health self-management. The researchers assessed improvement in participants’ ratings on quality of life (which includes psychological, physical and social aspects) after completion of a course that focused on “personal development through self-knowledge” using mind-body (e.g. meditation, psychotherapy) and body energy (e.g. energy flow, chakra) techniques such as guided and active meditation approaches, non-judgmental mindfulness, body awareness, liberating dance, breathing therapy and facilitating honest emotional expressions. These practices focused on such themes as birth, death, freedom and bully-victim roles. The researchers found that the intervention had a strong positive effect on the quality of life ratings, especially in terms of emotional health, Ratings for emotional health were also correlated with self-assessed general health, which is well known for being related to health prognosis. Participants: 152.

Farver-Vestergaard, I., Jacobsen, D., & Zachariae, R. (2015). Efficacy of Psychosocial Interventions on Psychological and Physical Health Outcomes in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 84.

Conclusion: Studies repeatedly show that cognitive behavioral therapy is good for improving psychological outcomes in people with COPD; however, only mind-body interventions are effective for physical outcomes. This suggests that an integration of the two may be even more beneficial. Researchers and medical professionals at Aarhus University and Aarhus University Hospital in Denmark conducted a meta-analysis of multiple controlled (i.e. experimental) medical studies to assess the effectiveness (particularly in terms of both psychological and physical health outcomes) of psychosocial interventions in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The researchers found that cognitive behavioral therapy was effective, but only for improving psychological outcomes. “In contrast, for physical outcomes, only mind-body interventions (e.g. mindfulness-based therapy, yoga, and relaxation) revealed a significant positive effect. “Taken together, the results lend support to psychosocial intervention as a tool in the management of COPD.” Participants: (Meta-analysis) 1491 studies screened, twenty independent studies investigating a total of 1361 patients assessed and discussed.

Ghasemipour, Y., Robinson, J., & Ghorbani, N. (2013). Mindfulness and Integrative Self-Knowledge: Relationships with Health-Related Variables. International Journal of Psychology, 48(6), 1030-1037. http://search.proquest.com.oca.ucsc.edu/docview/1492680422?accountid=14523

Conclusions: Mindfulness as well as reflective/experiential self-awareness seem to help both healthy and unhealthy men feel less stress and psychological distress (i.e. anxiety/depression) in their lives. Researchers from Malayer University and University of Tehran in Iran, as well as Flinders University in Australia found that both healthy and health-impaired men who exhibit mindfulness (i.e. “the general tendency to be attentive to and aware of present-moment experience in daily life”) and integrative self-knowledge (i.e. an integration of reflective and experiential self-awareness”) score better on three aspects of mental health (i.e. subjective stress—“the degree to which situations in one’s life are appraised as stressful;” non-somatic symptoms of anxiety; and non-somatic symptoms of depression) and scored lower on the Type 2 Subscale from the Interpersonal Reactions Inventory, which reflects anger, hostility and frustration toward others (e.g. “certain people keep interfering with my personal development”). Although self-awareness was lower in the health-impaired sample, there were no significant differences in the relationship between both types of awareness and health characteristics for both samples (i.e., for both samples, the more an individual displayed present-moment and reflective self-awareness, the better their mental health, and vice versa). Integrative self-knowledge (reflective self-awareness) was particularly important in predicting mental health within this study. Although the study took place in Iran, the psychological characteristics of the participants were similar to comparable samples in the U.S. Participants: 204 (103 men from general population and 101 male patients with coronary heart disease).

Jo, H., Hinterberger, T., Wittmann, M., & Schmidt, S. (2015) Do

Meditators Have Higher Awareness of Their Intentions to Act? Cortex, 65, 149-158. http://www.sciencedirect.com.oca.ucsc.edu/science/article/pii/S0010945215000179#

Conclusions: Meditators are better at thinking introspectively, which gives them greater control over their impulses and makes them more efficient at acting out certain tasks that require fast thinking and movement. Researchers from the University Medical Center Freiburg, European University Viadrina, University Medical Center Regensburg, and Institute for Frontier Areas of Psychology and Mental Health in Germany examined whether awareness of one’s inner processes affected control of voluntary movements. The researchers found that meditators displayed greater control and efficiency in processing their impulses and translating it into action in a mouse-click task when asked to think introspectively about their impulses before completing the task, compared to non-meditators who received the same instruction. EEG images showed that the introspective task influenced non-meditators’ controls for brain processes while the standard task (i.e. no instructions for introspection) did not. This different effect across tasks was not found for meditators, suggesting smoother processing across the two tasks. Participants: 40 participants (20 experienced in mindfulness meditation for at least 3 years; 20 with no prior experience in meditation practices).

Garland, E., Froeliger, B., & Howard, M. (2014). Effect of Mindfulness-Oriented Recovery Enhancement on Reward Responsiveness and Opioid Cue-Reactivity. Psychopharmacology, 231, 3229-3238. http://search.proquest.com.oca.ucsc.edu/docview/1492680422?accountid=14523

Conclusions: Mindfulness approaches (compared to mere participation in social support groups) may be effective at reducing addiction cravings by realigning the way people cognitively and physically react to reward cues. Researchers from the University of Utah, the Medical University of South Carolina, and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill found that compared to opioid-using chronic pain patients who only participated in social support groups, patients who participated in a Mindfulness-Oriented Recovery Enhancement program (MORE) experienced “enhanced natural reward processing” and “significantly greater pre- and post-intervention reductions in subjective opioid cue-reactivity” (i.e. level of arousal/craving elicited by opioid-related cues/images), as measured by heart rate variability during a cue-reactivity task. This provides preliminary evidence that mindfulness approaches may help increase reward responsiveness (which had been desensitized due to addiction) as well as reduce opioid cravings.  MORE involves “training in mindfulness, cognitive reappraisal, and savoring skills integrated into a manualized 8-session group intervention designed to address pathogenic factors involved in chronic pain and prescription opioid misuse.” Participants: 49 chronic pain patients who had taken opioid analgesics daily or nearly every day for at least the past 90 days (20 engaged in Mindfulness-Oriented Recovery Enhancement—MORE; 29 engaged in a social support group).

Chiesa, A., & Serretti, A. (2010). A Systematic Review of Neurobiological and Clinical Features of Mindfulness Meditations. Psychological Medicine, 40(8),

1239-1252.  http://search.proquest.com.oca.ucsc.edu/docview/754059355?accountid=14523

Conclusions: Studies repeatedly show that various mindfulness meditation approaches have a variety of beneficial effects on people, including increased brain activity, enhanced attention, enhanced physical and psychological well-being, and better outcomes in overcoming depression and substance abuse. Researchers from the University of Bologna in Italy conducted a meta-analysis in order to systematically examine the neurobiological and clinical effects of mindfulness meditation (MM). Their results suggest the following: [from abstract] (1) EEG studies “have revealed a significant increase in alpha and theta activity during meditation; (2) neuroimaging studies showed that MM practice activates the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)” and that (3) “long-term meditation practice is associated with an enhancement of cerebral areas related to attention;” (4) MBSR “has shown efficacy for many psychiatric and physical conditions and also for health subjects;” (5) Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) “is mainly efficacious in reducing relapses of depression in patients with three or more episodes,” (6) “Zen meditation significant reduces blood pressure;” (7) “Vipassana meditation shows efficacy in reducing alcohol and substance abuse in prisoners.” Participants: Review of 52 published studies (narrowed down from 748 after screening and exclusion based on study parameters).

Carmody, J., & Baer, R. (2009). How Long Does a Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Program Need to Be? A Review of Class Contact Hours and Effect Sizes for Psychological Distress. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65(6), 627-638. http://search.proquest.com.oca.ucsc.edu/docview/622003076?accountid=14523

Conclusions: Overall, short-term MBSR interventions seem as effective as long-term MBSR programs in reducing psychological distress, and should therefore be looked into to make MBSR more accessible to more people. Researchers from the University of Massachusetts Medical School and the University of Kentucky examined the effect sizes of published studies on MBSR in order to assess whether or not the length of MBSR interventions have a significant effect on improvement. The researchers found no signification relationship between number of class hours in MBSR programs and effect sizes for measures of psychological distress. They also found “no evidence that that shortened version of MBSR are less effective than the standard version in reducing psychological distress. The researchers suggest more systematic examination of length of MBSR and effectiveness in order to make MBSR more feasible for people who would not be able to participate in longer programs. They also acknowledge that their findings focus on psychological distress and do not account for potential brain or immunological effects, as well as long-term effects of longer MBSR programs. Participants: (Meta-analysis) 30 published studies.

Jon Vollestad, J., Sivertsen, V., & Nielsen, G. (2011). Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction for Patients with Anxiety Disorders: Evaluation in a Randomized Controlled Trial. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49(4), 281-288.  http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0005796711000246#

Conclusions: MBSR greatly reduces anxiety and depression in people with anxiety disorders, while also increasing their mindfulness and reducing insomnia and excessive worry. Researchers at the University of Bergen, the Norwegian Institute of Public Health, and Helse Fonna HF in Norway found that participants who were randomly assigned to an 8-week MBSR program improved significantly, with large effect sizes, in measures of anxiety and depression compared to participants who were randomly assigned to a waiting-list/no-treatment condition. Participants in the MBSR program also experienced increases in mindfulness and substantial reductions in excessive and uncontrollable worry and insomnia. Participants: 76 patients with anxiety disorders.

Koszycki, D., Benger, M., Shlik, J., & Bradwejn, J. (2007). Randomized Trial of a Meditation-Based Stress Reduction Program and Cognitive Behavior Therapy in Generalized Social Anxiety Disorder. Behavior Research and Therapy, 45(10). http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0005796707001003

Conclusions: Both MBSR and Cognitive Behavioral Group Therapy are effective at improving functioning, mood and a sense of well-being for people with Social Anxiety Disorder. However, CBGT is much better at actually reducing social anxiety. (Angela’s Note: this might be because the CBGT was specifically tailored to address issues around anxiety, whereas the MBSR program focused on reducing stress). Researchers from the University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, the Royal Ottawa Mental Health Centre, and the University of Ottawa in Canada examined the efficacy of MBSR in the treatment of Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) compared to cognitive behavioral group therapy (CBGT) and found that “although patients in both treatment groups improved,” patients receiving CBGT experienced greater improvement, with lower clinician and patient ratings of social anxiety. However, both treatments were equally effective at “improving functioning, mood and subjective well-being.” Participants: 53 participants with Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD).

Ong, J., Manber, R., Segal, Z., Xia, Y., Shapiro, S., & Wyatt, J. (2014). A Randomized Controlled Trial of Mindfulness Meditation for Chronic Insomnia. Sleep: Journal of Sleep and Sleep Disorders Research, 37(9), 1553-1566. http://search.proquest.com.oca.ucsc.edu/docview/1640006616?accountid=14523

Conclusions: Mindfulness programs are effective at reducing insomnia symptoms. Those that are tailored specifically for insomnia are even better at reducing symptoms and maintaining benefits after treatment/intervention is over. Researchers at Rush University Medical Center, Stanford University Medical Center, the University of Toronto, Rochester Medical Center, and Santa Clara University found that mindfulness-based approaches could be a viable alternative treatment option for adults with chronic insomnia. Participants who were randomly assigned to MBSR, or MBTI (mindfulness-based therapy for insomnia) were superior in improving insomnia symptoms (e.g. sleep onset latency, wake after sleep onset, number of awakenings, total sleep time, time in bed, and sleep efficiency) compared to participants who were randomly assigned to the self-monitoring (i.e. sleep diaries only) group. No significant differences were found between MBSR and MBTI for total wake time and pre-sleep arousal; however, MBTI showed “significantly greater reduction in insomnia severity . . . compared to MBSR across the entire study period” and showed greater lasting effects when assessed 3 months after treatment had ended. MBTI incorporates similar aspects of MBSR (e.g. both quiet and movement meditations) but discussions around mindfulness are tailored specifically to the treatment of insomnia. Participants: 54 adults with chronic insomnia.

Bohlmeijer, E., Prenger, R., Taal, E., & Cuijpers, P. (2010). The Effects of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Therapy on Mental Health of Adults with a Chronic Medical Disease: A Mental Analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022399909004152#

Conclusions: Multiple studies show that MBSR can reduce depression, anxiety and psychological distress in people with chronic somatic diseases (e.g. heart disease, arthritis, fibromyalgia). Researchers from the University of Twente and VU University in the Netherlands conducted a meta-analysis of studies examining the effectiveness of MBSR on the mental health of people with different chronic somatic diseases. The researchers found that “MBSR has small effects on depression, anxiety and psychological distress in people with chronic somatic disease.” The researchers suggest that these small effect sizes may be due to the fact that MBSR was implemented for the purposes of stress reduction and not specifically geared toward reducing depression or anxiety. They therefore suggest adapting MBSR to more specifically address these areas and to also integrate it with cognitive behavioral therapy in order to enhance effectiveness. (Meta-Analysis) 8 published studies using experimental (randomized/controlled) methodology (i.e. these studies compared an MBSR group to a no-treatment group).

Khoury, B., Sharma, M., Rush, S., & Fournier, C. (2009). Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction for Healthy Individuals: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 78(6), 519-528. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002239991500080X#

Conclusions: Studies repeatedly show that MBSR is beneficial for healthy people as well. It greatly reduces stress, moderately reduces anxiety, depression, and distress, increases quality of life, and somewhat reduces burnout. Researchers in Psychology and Health Science at Harvard University, McGill University, Jackson State University, the University of Alabama and the Centre de santé et de services sociaux de la Vieille-Capitale in Canada conducted a meta-analysis of studies on MBSR in order to assess its effectiveness in nonclinical (i.e. healthy) populations. Taken together, the results “suggested large effects on stress, moderate effects on anxiety, depression, distress, and quality of life, and small effects on burnout.” Furthermore, overall, MBSR increased mindfulness and compassion, which was also positively correlated with participants’ “changes in their clinical outcomes” (i.e. depression, anxiety, distress). Health professionals particularly benefited from MBSR. Participants: (Meta-Analysis) 29 published studies using MBSR up until September 2014. This encompasses 2668 participants across the studies. 

Keng, S., Smoski, M., & Robins, C. (2011). Effects of Mindfulness on Psychological Health: A Review of Empirical Studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(6), 1041-1056. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027273581100081X

Conclusion: Studies repeatedly show that mindfulness approaches

have positive effects on psychological health; however, different aspects of mindfulness are more useful for addressing certain problems, so programs should be tailored accordingly. This article discusses the history behind integrating mindfulness approaches in Western health practices and then examines the current empirical literature on mindfulness and psychological health. The article categorizes and discusses current studies in terms of methodologies (i.e. correlational, intervention-based, and experimental) and implications. The authors conclude that “mindfulness brings about various positive psychological effects, including increased subjective well-being, reduced psychological symptoms and emotional reactivity, and improved behavioral regulation.” However, because the effectiveness of mindfulness approaches seem to rely on individual variables (e.g. attachment styles, baseline mindfulness, and particular disorder), the researchers discuss the importance of tailored care as opposed to a blanket “cure-all.” For example, focusing on the attention aspect of mindfulness training for people with ADHD, and focusing on the self-compassion aspect for people with disorders involving excessive shame and guilt (e.g. eating disorders). 

Chieso, A., & Serretti, A. (2009). Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction for Stress Management in Healthy People: A Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 15(5), 593-600. http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/pdf/10.1089/acm.2008.0495

Conclusions: Studies repeatedly show that MBSR is also beneficial for healthy people who aren’t necessarily suffering from any diseases, disorders or chronic conditions. Researchers from the Institute of Psychiatry at the University of Bologna in Italy conducted a meta-analysis of published studies in order to examine the comprehensive effects of MBSR on stress in healthy individuals. Their findings suggest that MBSR is more effective at reducing overall stress and increasing spirituality compared to not receiving any kind of treatment at all. However, it is less clear whether or not MBSR is more effective at reducing stress or increasing spirituality than other types of interventions such as relaxation training (two studies found no significant differences in effectiveness for either variables). MBSR was found to be more effective at increasing empathy and self-compassion compared to no treatment groups, and more effective at reducing rumination compared to both no treatment and relaxation training groups. (Meta-Analysis) 10 published studies.

Wells, R., Burch, R., Paulsen, R., Wayne, P., Houle, T., & Loder, E. (2014). Meditation for Migraines: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial. Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain, 54(9), 1484-1495. http://search.proquest.com.oca.ucsc.edu/docview/1650982440?accountid=14523

Conclusions: MBSR might help reduce the number and severity of migraines. Medical researchers from the Wake Forest School of Medicine and Harvard Medical School conducted a pilot study to examine the effectiveness of an 8-week MBSR course in adults with migraines. Based on averages and compared to participants that received usual care, participants who were randomly assigned to the MBSR group experienced less migraines per month and the migraines decreased in severity by the end of the intervention. Self-efficacy and mindfulness also improved for participants in the MBSR group. These results did not reach statistical significance because of the small sample size; however these preliminary results suggest that MBSR may be a safe and appropriate intervention for adults with migraines. Participants: 19 participants (10 in the MBSR program; 9 in usual care).

Zainal, N., Booth, S., & Huppert, F. (2013). The Efficacy of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction on Mental Health of Breast Cancer Patients: A Meta-Analysis. Psycho-Oncology, 22(7), 1457-1465. http://search.proquest.com.oca.ucsc.edu/docview/1431011750?accountid=14523

Conclusions: Studies repeatedly show that MBSR greatly improves the mental health of breast cancer patients. Researchers from the University of Malaya and the University of Cambridge conducted a meta-analysis of published studies on mindfulness-based interventions for breast cancer patients. Their findings indicate that MBSR “shows a moderate to large positive effect size [i.e. it has a strong impact] on the mental health of breast cancer patients.” Specifically, across these studies, MBSR has been shown to reduce perceived stress, anxiety, and depression. Participants: (Meta-analysis) of 9 published studies.

Shapiro, S., Bootzin, R., Figueredo, A., & Lopez, M., Schwartz, G. (2003). The Efficacy of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction in the Treatment of Sleep Disturbance in Women with Breast Cancer: An Exploratory Study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 54(1), 85-91. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022399902005469

Conclusions: MBSR is just as effective as other types of stress intervention programs on improving quality of sleep. Furthermore, people receiving MBSR training who actually adhere to the program and practice more mindfulness

experience greater quality of sleep. Researchers from the University of Arizona examined the effects of different stress management interventions on sleep in women with breast cancer by randomly assigning participants to either an MSBR intervention or a “free choice” (FC) condition in which they can choose whichever stress management technique to engage in each week (e.g. “talking to a friend, exercise, and taking a warm bath”). Participants in both intervention groups experienced improvements in sleep quality (i.e. feeling rested/refreshed) but not sleep efficiency (i.e. ease of initiating and maintaining sleep). There were no significant differences based on which intervention participants were assigned to; however, participants in the MBSR group who actually adhered to and engaged in more mindfulness practice reported greater feelings of being refreshed after sleep.” Participants: 63 women with breast cancer.

Chang, V., et al. (2004). The Effects of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Program on Stress, Mindfulness Self-Efficacy, and Positive States of Mind. Stress and Health, 20(3), 141-147. http://search.proquest.com.oca.ucsc.edu/docview/620503428?accountid=14523

Conclusions: MBSR may reduce stress, improve mindfulness skills, and increase positive states of mind. Researchers from the Stanford University School of Medicine “examined the effects of an 8-week MBSR intervention on pain, positive states of mind, stress, and mindfulness self-efficacy.” At the end of the program duration, participants experienced significantly lower levels of stress, and significantly greater levels of mindfulness self-efficacy and positive states of mind. Mindfulness self-efficacy refers to “whether participants can maintain non-judgmental awareness during different situations (e.g. being hungry and reaching out for junk food; when a significant other is criticizing a bad habit; when experiencing pain of eight on a scale of 1 to 10).” Positive states of mind involves “six domains of satisfying states of mind: focused attention, productivity, responsible caretaking, restful repose, sensual/non-sexual pleasure, and sharing.” Participants: 48.

Jazaieri, H., et al. (2012). A Randomized Trial of MBSR Versus Aerobic Exercise for Social Anxiety Disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 68(7), 715-731. http://search.proquest.com.oca.ucsc.edu/docview/1030207721?accountid=14523

Conclusions: Both MBSR and aerobic exercise programs are equally

effective in reducing anxiety and depression and increasing well-being. Researchers at Stanford University randomly assigned participants with Social Anxiety Disorder to either an MBSR program or an aerobic exercise (AE) program, and then compared them to participants who received no intervening treatment. Participants in both the MBSR and AE program displayed “reductions in anxiety and depression and increases in subjective well-being” both immediately at the end of the program period, as well as 3 months after. There were no significant differences between the effectiveness of MBSR and AE; however, participants in either program experienced greater improvement compared to participants in the no-treatment group. The researchers suggest that MBSR and AE may be complementary forms of treatment. Participants: 85 participants with Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD).

MacCoon, D. G., Imel, Z. E., Rosenkranz, M. A., Sheftel, J. G., Weng, H. Y., Sullivan, J. C., Bonus, K. A., Stoney, C. M., Salomons, T. V., Davidson, R. J., & Lutz, A. (2012). The validation of an active control intervention for Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR). Behaviour research and therapy, 50(1), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2011.10.011

Conclusions: Other non-mindfulness-based programs may be just as

effective at MBSR in reducing medical and psychological symptoms; however MBSR can help people feel less pain. Researchers from the University of Wisconsin, the University of Washington, and the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute examined the effectiveness of an MBSR program compared to a Health Enhancement Program (HEP) that was comparable to MBSR, minus the emphasis on mindfulness. Participants who were randomly assigned to the MBSR program were better at regulating pain (i.e. they perceived less pain) compared to the HEP participants; however, there were no other distinct differences in effectiveness for either programs (i.e. general distress, anxiety, hostility, and medical symptoms significantly improved for participants with no major distinctions based on program). Participants: 63 participants (31 in MSBR, 32 in HEP—Health Enhancement Program).

Bergen-Cico, D., Possemato, K., & Cheon, S. (2013). Examining the efficacy of a brief mindfulness-based stress reduction (brief MBSR) program on psychological health. Journal of American College Health, 61(6), 348-360. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2013.813853

Conclusion: Brief 5-week MBSR training can improve mindfulness and self-compassion, but longer training might be necessary to tackle deeper issues like anxiety and depression. Researchers at Syracuse University, the Center for Integrative Healthcare at the Syracuse Veterans Administration, and the Won Institute for Graduate Studies examined the effects of participating in a brief (5-week) MBSR program embedded within an academic course. Participants who engaged in the brief MBSR program displayed significant improvements in particular aspects of psychological well-being—specifically in terms of mindfulness and self-compassion scores, compared to those who did not. However, no changes in anxiety or depression were seen—the researchers suggest that although short programs still have benefits to psychological health, longer programs may be necessary to treat deeper issues. Participants: 119 college students (72 in courses w/MBSR program and 47 in regular courses).

Levin, A., et al. (2014). Can Meditation Influence Quality of Life, Depression, and Disease Outcome in Multiple Sclerosis? Findings form a Large International Web-Based Study. Behavioral Neurology.  http://www.hindawi.com.oca.ucsc.edu/journals/bn/2014/916519/

Conclusions: People with multiple sclerosis who meditate one or more times a week are psychologically and cognitively healthier and happier than people who don’t. Medical researchers from the University of Melbourne, St. Vincent’s Hospital, Monash University, and the University of Notre Dame in Australia conducted a large, web-based, international study on meditation practices and health-related quality of life, depression, fatigue, disability level, relapse rates, and disease activity on people with multiple sclerosis. The researchers found significant differences in participants who meditated once or more times a week and those who did not meditate at all. Overall quality of life and cognitive function scores were significantly higher in those who meditated, and risk of depression was significantly lower. Participants: 2469 participants, 18 years of age or older, and diagnosed with multiple sclerosis.  

Larson, M. J., Steffen, P. R., & Primosch, M. (2013). The impact of a brief mindfulness meditation intervention on cognitive control and error-related performance monitoring. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 7, 308. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00308

Conclusions: Brief training in mindful meditation before a stressful task can help lower or stabilize blood pressure while performing the task. Researchers from Brigham Young University conducted an experiment and found that brief training in mindfulness meditation can reduce blood pressure while performing stress-inducing tasks. The researchers recruited participants who didn’t regularly practice meditation and randomly divided them into two groups. One mindfulness group listened to an audiotape with basic instructions on mindfulness meditation (“attending to their breathing and being mindful of the moment”) and did a short mindfulness breathing exercise. The control group listened to an audiotape about relaxation and living ethical lives. Both training took similar amounts of time (about 15 minutes). Both groups then did a “flanker task” in which they had to press a key/button that corresponded to the direction an arrow was pointing on the screen as quickly and accurately as possible. Although participants in both groups had similar response times and error rates, the participants in the mindfulness group had lower systolic blood pressure throughout the task. Participants: 55 non-meditators.

Tang, Y. Y., Tang, R., & Posner, M. I. (2013). Brief meditation training induces smoking reduction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110(34), 13971–13975. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1311887110

Conclusions: Brief training in mindfulness meditation can reduce how much smokers smoke, regardless of whether or not the smoker wants to quit. On the other hand, brief relaxation training doesn’t reduce how much people smoke. Researchers from Texas Tech University, The University of Texas at Austin, and the University of Oregon found that among smokers, participants who were randomly assigned to engage in 2 weeks of mindfulness meditation training (for a total of 5 hours) displayed a significantly greater reduction in smoking (by 60%) by the end of the training period compared to participants who engaged in relaxation training for the same duration. Participants in the relaxation training group experienced no reduction in smoking. The researchers also found that intention to quit smoking did not have a significant impact on reduction in smoking (i.e. participants who indicated a desire to quit did not outperform other smokers who were in the same meditation training program). Participants: 60 participants (27 smokers and 33 non-smokers). 

Hauswald, A., Übelacker, T., Leske, S., & Weisz, N. (2015). What it means to be Zen: marked modulations of local and interareal synchronization during open monitoring meditation. NeuroImage, 108, 265–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.12.065

Conclusions: Both short and long term Zen meditation are associated with changes in brain activity in areas related to attention and awareness. Researchers from the University of Trento in Italy and the University of Konstanz in Germany examined electrophysiological activity in the brain (via EEG) during Zen meditation and during non-meditation rest and found that mindfulness scores on the Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale were positively correlated with high-frequency gamma (100-245 Hz) levels during meditation in areas of the brain such as the cingulate cortex and the somatosensory cortices. Participants: 11 Zen meditators with varying levels of experience.

Tang, Y.‑Y., Hölzel, B. K., & Posner, M. I. (2015). “The neuroscience of mindfulness meditation”: Erratum. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16(5), 312. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3954

Conclusions: Overall, studies repeatedly show that mindfulness meditation leads to changes in areas of the brain that allow us to control our attention, emotions, and awareness. This article reviews the current state of empirical evidence on the effects of mindfulness meditation on the brain and may therefore be useful for a quick overview. The article shows that overall, there is evidence suggesting that mindfulness meditation can lead to “neuroplastic changes in the structure and function of brain regions involved in regulation of attention, emotion, and self-awareness.” The article has a number of tables and charts that nicely lays out the brain region, the type of meditation technique, and findings on psychoneurotic changes. 

Aghababaei, N. et al. (2011). The role of trait gratitude in predicting psychological and subjective well-being. Journal of Iranian Psychologists, 8(29), 75-84. 

Conclusion: this study investigated the role of gratitude in psychological and subjective well being. Subjects completed the Ryff’s Psychological Well Being Scale, Subjective Happiness Scale, Satisfaction with Life Scale, Gratitude Questionnaire and International Personality Item Pool. Gratitude was positively correlated with all factors of psychological well being and subjective well being. “Gratitude accounted for significant additional variance in environmental mastery, personal growth, self acceptance, life satisfaction and happiness after controlling for the personality factors as well.” 200 participants. 

Roberts-Wolf D. et al. (2012). Mindfulness training alters emotional memory recall compared to active controls. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 1-13. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00015/full

Conclusion: “Repeatedly taking in positive experiences will likely make your brain ‘stickier’ for them, which will increase your positive experiences, making you brain even stickier in a positive circle.” 58 Participants. HH pp. 44 “Mindfulness training was associated with greater improvements in processing efficiency…These data suggest that mindfulness training may improve well-being via changes in emotional information processing.”

Gavian, M. (2012). The effects of relaxation and gratitude interventions on stress outcomes. Proquest Information & Learning. https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/117368/1/Gavian_umn_0130E_12278.pdf

Conclusion: this study investigated two approaches to stress management. The first method was increasing positive emotions through relaxation—Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR). The second was a gratitude intervention (assessing quality of life, sense of control, life happiness, ect.). These two approaches were compared to a control group. Subjects underwent a week-long intervention of one of the conditions, and were then assessed, both directly after the intervention and one month later. “Results indicated that PMR is an effective intervention: At post intervention, those in the PMR group condition reported significantly more perceived control and serenity than both the gratitude and control groups. Those in the PMR group also had significantly lower negative affect than the control group. Group differences in stress and physical health symptoms rating, although marginally significant, revealed results again in favor of PMR. At follow up (30 days later) the PMR group maintained significantly lower negative affect than the control group.” 247 participants.

Long, B. C. (1985). Stress-management interventions: A 15 month follow up of aerobic conditioning and stress inoculation training. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9(4), 471-478. 

Conclusion: this study investigated the effects of either aerobic exercise (jogging) or stress inoculation training (modifying inner dialogue, positivity training) on a group of chronically stressed subjects. It was found 15 months after the training that while both approaches worked, the inoculation training had a greater effect. “At follow up, both interventions led to continued reports of significantly less anxiety and greater self-efficacy. The superior treatment effects of stress inoculation in modifying inner dialogue, increasing positive self-statements, and decreasing negative self-statements were maintained.” 61 participants. 

Long, B. C. (1984). Aerobic conditioning and stress inoculation: A comparison of stress management interventions. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 8(5), 517-541. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF01173289

Conclusion: this study compared the effectiveness of an aerobic conditioning program (AC) to a stress-inoculation training (SI) using a waiting list control (WL) to control the data. Over a 10 week period, subjects met in small groups for 1.5 hour sessions of either of the two conditions. The State and Trait Anxiety Inventories, Tension Thermometer, Thought-Listing Technique and Self –Efficacy scale were used at pre, post and 3 month follow up. “Repeated measures multivariable analysis indicated that both the AC and SI were effective in reducing self-reported anxiety and increasing self-efficacy and that these changes were maintained 3 months after completing the program.” 73 participants.

Szalma, Hancock, & Dember, et al. (2006). Training for vigilance: The effect of knowledge of results format and dispositional optimism and pessimism on performance and stress. British Journal of Psychology, 97(1), 115-35. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712605X62768

Conclusion: Researchers tested the effects of providing different forms of feedback to participants engaged in a task, measuring their performance and stress levels. The task consisted of participants monitoring a simulation of a chemical process that would result in a reaction. Depending on their randomly assigned group, participants were only given feedback on detections they had either (1) made correctly, (2) made incorrectly, or (3) completely missed. Additionally, one group received all 3 types of feedback, and one group received no feedback to serve as a control. Moreover, character traits of pessimism and optimism were examined as potential mediating variables between stress and performance. The results showed that any feedback was better than no feedback at all, however there was no difference in performance between the three types of feedback. Moreover, there was an effect of increased performance and reduced stress for the group that received all 3 types of feedback. Finally, while levels of pessimism and optimism did show interactions with types of feedback and reported (perceived) levels of stress, they demonstrated no effect on the individual’s performance. Participants: 110 undergraduates. Mean age 20 years. Main Point: Well-rounded feedback is best for reducing stress and increasing performance. Positive or negative perceptions have an effect on stress, though not performance

Halkos, G., & Bousinakis, D. (2010). The effect of stress and satisfaction on productivity. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 59(5), 415–431. doi: 10.1108/17410401011052869 

Conclusion: Quality of work increases with job satisfaction and is negatively affected by stress, as determined by factor analysis of the correlation between a large number of qualitative and quantitative variables. Job stress/satisfaction result from the interaction of the environments demands and peoples personal characteristics.  “As expected, increased stress leads to reduced productivity and increased satisfaction leads to increased productivity.”

Puterman, E., Lin, J., Krauss, J., Blackburn, E. H., & Epel, E. S. (2015). Determinants of telomere attrition over 1 year in healthy older women: stress and health behaviors matter. Molecular psychiatry, 20(4), 529–535. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2014.70

Conclusion: women subjects provided blood for telomere (length determines cell life: if it gets too short, the cell dies) measurement. “Women who were exposed to more stressors throughout the year saw significant reduction in telomere length…However, when researchers looked at the group of women who maintained healthy lifestyles—in how they ate, moved and slept,–the accumulation of life stressors did not lead to significant shortening of telomeres.” 239 participants * AYFC pp. 146 reference #221

Summaries are being prepared for the following citations: 

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